Introduction:
Antimony is a silvery-white metal that has both industrial and therapeutic applications. It is found naturally occurring in the Earth’s crust. Antimony toxicity can occur due to occupational exposure; it can also be due to therapy. It may cause various disorders such as respiratory difficulties, antimony spots on the skin, pneumoconiosis (a group of lung diseases caused due to inhalation of certain dust), and gastrointestinal disorders, and it can even be carcinogenic. Antimony is naturally released into the environment by volcanic eruptions, windblown dust, sea sprat, biogenic sources, and forest fires. The average intake of antimony in ordinary cases is roughly 5 μg per day; therefore, for the general population, the toxicity threat is relatively low. Antimony toxicity usually occurs due to occupational exposure, therapeutic or domestic use.
What Are the Uses of Antimony?
Antimony in its elemental form can be used to produce:
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Semiconductors.
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Diodes.
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Infrared detectors.
If it is mixed with alloys because of its flexible nature and it can be used as:
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Solder.
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To manufacture lead storage batteries.
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Pipe metal.
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Castings.
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Pewter.
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Castings.
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Bearings.
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In the oxide form, it can be used in fire-retardant formulations for rubbers, plastics, paper, textiles, and paints. Antimony trisulfide form is used to produce pigments, antimony salts, explosives, and ruby glass.
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Therapeutic properties of antimony include its usage in the treatment of schistosomiasis and leishmaniasis.
What Are the Hazards Caused by Antimony?
The major toxicity due to the therapeutic usage of antimony is cardiotoxicity. It can also cause pancreatitis in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) patients.
Occupational Hazard of Antimony:
It mainly occurs among industrial workers such as metal mining and refining, smelting, coal-fired power plants, refuse incineration, or those working in indoor firing ranges. These occupational exposures occur while producing antimony and antimony trioxide in the environments mentioned above.
Inhalational Exposure of Antimony:
The absorption of antimony by inhalation depends on the particle size. Aerosols containing antimony compounds with low water solubility have a higher chance of being retained in the lungs for a more extended period than those with larger particles but high water solubility. Antimony in the form of antimony trichloride, pentasulfide, trioxide, stibine, trisulfide, and pentoxide forms has been found to have several adverse health effects.
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Long-standing exposure to compounds such as antimony trioxide or pentoxide can cause pneumoconiosis.
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Chronic bronchitis.
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Chronic emphysema.
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Inactive tuberculosis.
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Pleural adhesions.
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Rhinitis.
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Pharyngitis.
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Bronchitis.
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Edema in the lungs.
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Respiratory difficulties such as coughing, wheezing, and inflammation of the upper respiratory tract.
Oral Exposure of Antimony:
Antimony has emetic properties; that is, it can induce vomiting. It can also lead to gastrointestinal effects such as stomach pains, colic, burning sensation, and nausea.
Antimony compounds have also been associated with cot deaths or sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).
Therapeutic Exposure of Antimony:
Antimony has been used to treat schistosomiasis and leishmaniasis. Although it is highly effective in treating leishmaniasis, its usage has been discontinued due to its toxic effects. Injections that gave rise to joint pain, lung, bowel, and kidney problems have been reported. It can also cause minor adverse effects when used in sodium antimony gluconate, such as myalgia (muscle pain), arthralgia (joint pain), and minor ECG variations.
What Are the Health Effects of Antimony?
The body’s reaction to antimony depends on the type of exposure. Topical exposure can lead to skin and eye irritation. Exposure to the eyes can cause corneal burns.
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Moderate ingestions can show effects from 30 minutes to two hours. The patient experiences a metallic taste, vomiting, nausea, abdominal pain, and diarrhea.
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Substantial ingestions can lead to severe vomiting, diarrhea, and gastric bleeding. This may lead to fluid loss, which can cause electrolyte imbalance, and decreased blood pressure, and ultimately the body can go into a shock. Neurological effects such as cerebral edema, coma, and convulsions are also likely to occur. Long-standing intake of it can lead to anorexia, weight loss, skin rash, and peripheral neuropathy.
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Suppose inhaled antimony can cause respiratory tract and eye irritation. Chronic inhalation exposure can cause cough and wheezing.
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If injected as a medication for leishmaniasis (a parasitic condition usually common in subtropical and tropical areas) and schistosomiasis (a disease caused due to parasitic worms), it can cause gastrointestinal disturbances, liver problems, renal failure, and bone marrow defects.
1. Cardiovascular Effects: The cardiovascular effect in humans is increased blood pressure, and altered electrocardiogram (ECG) if inhaled antimony trisulfide dust can give rise to degenerative changes in the myocardium and ECG abnormalities.
2. Gastrointestinal Effects: Airborne exposure can cause gastrointestinal problems such as abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, and ulcers. Long-standing exposure to antimony trisulfide, trichloride, or antimony oxide can cause these effects.
3. Dermal Effects: The main dermal manifestations of occupational and inhalation exposure to antimony are ‘antimony spots.’ These are pus-filled eruptions in the trunk and limbs near sebaceous and sweat glands. This is seen more pronounced in hot weather, where workers are exposed to high temperatures. If the workers were shifted to a cooler environment, it was observed that the rash cleared within a span of 3-14 days.
4. Reproductive Effects: It was seen that there was an increase in spontaneous abortions or menstrual disturbances in women working in a metallurgical plant. And a study on rats showed that two-thirds of rats exposed to antimony failed to conceive.
5. Carcinogenicity: Antimony is believed to have the possibility of being carcinogenic in humans. Although there is no direct evidence, studies have shown that antimony trioxide and antimony trisulfide have caused lung tumors in rats.
6. Genotoxicity: In vitro studies have shown chromosome breakage in human leukocytes.
7. Renal Effects: Antimony can cause severe renal effects such as tubular necrosis and high protein, urea, and nitrogen levels indicative of renal failure.
8. Pulmonary Effects: Antimony can cause local irritation, such as laryngitis and tracheitis. It can also cause dyspnea, cough, and wheezing.
9. Hepatic Effects: Antimony can affect the liver and can cause liver necrosis.
10. Ocular Effects: There can be acute or sudden effects of antimony exposure that can cause local irritation. It can also cause conjunctivitis, corneal burn, and sensitivity to light exposure.
Conclusion:
Antimony is a naturally occurring metal that has a number of industrial and therapeutic applications. It is unproblematic in the general population; only when there is an occupational or therapeutic exposure does this seemingly innocent metal pose a serious toxic effect. Based on the type of exposure, it has various health hazards that affect the eyes, gastrointestinal, renal, and liver functions. The discovery of the toxic nature of the metal has encouraged the workers to take precautions, and the improvements in working conditions have drastically reduced the incidence of toxicity. Likewise, as the adverse effects outweighed the benefits, many antimony drugs have been discontinued. Quality control measures and monitoring of drug toxicity have helped reduce antimony toxicity.
