Effects of Radiation: An Overview

Introduction

Radiation is a type of energy that travels through space and can penetrate various materials, including the human body. It is commonly used in medical procedures such as X-rays and cancer treatment, as well as in industries such as nuclear power generation. However, exposure to high levels of radiation can have negative effects on the human body. An atom's ion production or conversion into an ion is known as ionization. X-rays are pure energy packages with no electrical charge and travel in a straight line. It belongs to electromagnetic radiation having a wavelength of 10 to 0.01 angstrom. As the X-rays enter the atoms, it creates excitation, which enables them to interfere with the body's normal functioning. This property is used for the treatment of malignancy and sterilization. However, it does cause short-term and long-term effects on biological tissue. It interacts with deoxyribonucleic acid causing direct effects, whereas it can also target water molecules in the body, causing indirect effects.

What Are the Types of Exposures?

The effects of radiation on the body depend on several factors, including the type and amount of radiation exposure, the duration of exposure, and the age and health status of the person exposed. There are two types of radiation exposure: acute and chronic.

• Acute Exposure - Acute radiation exposure occurs when a person is exposed to a high dose of radiation over a short period of time, such as during a nuclear accident. Symptoms of acute radiation sickness can include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, fever, and skin burns. In severe cases, acute radiation exposure can cause death.

• Chronic Exposure - Chronic radiation exposure, on the other hand, occurs when a person is exposed to low levels of radiation over a long period of time, such as through their occupation or living in a high radiation area. The effects of chronic radiation exposure can take years or even decades to develop and can include an increased risk of cancer, cataracts, and other health problems.

What Are the Types of Radiation Effects?

The following are the types of radiation effects:

• Deterministic Effect - It is an effect in which the severity of the response of the tissue is directly proportional to the radiation dose. The response is not seen if the dose is below the threshold level.

Following are examples of the deterministic effects:

• Skin burns due to radiation.

• Acute radiation syndrome.

• Sickness.

• Cataract.

• Tumor Necrosis.

• Stochastic Effect-- This effect occurs by chance or probability. The probability of occurrence is proportional to the dose received. The effects are seen after a longer duration of time, known as a latent period.

Following are examples of stochastic effects:

• Malignancy.

• Genetic disorder.

What Is the Short-Term Effect of Radiation?

The effects of radiation depend upon the sensitivity of the cells. The short-term effects are seen if the effects are seen quickly after irradiation of the cells. It occurs due to the high radiosensitivity of the cells. Bone marrow and oral mucous membranes are highly radiosensitive cells, which shows short-term effects.

What Is the Long-Term Effect of Radiation?

If the irradiation affects the vasculature, long-term effects are seen on tissue. It occurs due to the radiosensitivity of connective tissue and blood vessels. Radiation, degeneration, and necrosis around the blood vessels increase the permeability of capillaries and fibrosis, causing the formation of fibrous scars. In addition, there is the presence of premature narrowing of the blood vessels. Transport of oxygen and nutrients is impaired, resulting in cell death.

What Are the Effects of Radiation on Various Body Parts?

Following are the effects of radiation on various body parts:

• Skin - Radiation affects the skin in acute and chronic forms.

  • Acute Effects - Skin becomes dry, and there is an increase in susceptibility to chapping. The ridges of fingernails become brittle.

  • Chronic Effects - There is loosening of hair and atrophy of the skin. The skin is extremely dry due to the destruction of sweat glands. There is the presence of pigmentation and keratosis. An indolent type of ulceration is seen in the skin.

• Eyes -The epilation of eyelashes is seen. There is decreased flexibility and inflammation of the eyelashes. Dryness of the eyes is seen due to the destruction of lacrimal glands. Ulceration in the cornea is seen, and cataract formation occurs from the periphery.

• Ears - Desquamation of epithelium of ear is seen. There is a collection of sterile fluid and edema of the mucosa of the ears. There is obstruction of the eustachian tube, causing radiation otitis media. Ruptures of the eardrums can result in deafness.

• Testicles and Ovary - There is germinal activity suppression and fertility alteration. Functional changes in offspring can be seen due to radiation.

• Hematopoietic Changes - Leukopenia anemia, lymphopenia, and leukemia are seen in the blood picture as a reaction to the radiation.

• Bone - Due to loss of vasculature, the bone marrow is replaced by fibrous connective tissue and bone marrow. There is a loss of osteoblastic and osteoclastic activity, due to which the endosteum becomes atrophic. Osteoradionecrosis of the bone is seen. In this condition, the bone becomes hypovascular hypo mineralized, and hypocellularity. It causes infections and necrosis of the bone.

• Oral Mucous Membrane - After radiation, there is the presence of inflammation and redness of the oral mucous membrane, known as mucositis. After that, there is the formation of a yellowish pseudomembranous slough. There is an obliteration of the blood vessels, and the underlying connective tissue is fibrosis. There is atrophy of the mucous membrane resulting in secondary infection. Painful ulceration is seen in the oral mucosa.

• Tongue - Taste buds are sensitive to radiation. There is a loss of taste sensation after prolonged radiation.

• Salivary Glands - There is progressive connective tissue fibrosis, loss of blood vessels, and degeneration of parenchymal tissue. The salivary flow is decreased due to the presence of a dry mouth. The pH value of saliva is decreased.

• Teeth - There is a decrease in vascularity of pulpal tissue resulting in pulpitis. There is decalcification of enamel and accumulation of plaque. Radiation caries are seen due to reduced salivary flow.

Conclusion

In conclusion, radiation exposure can have a range of negative effects on the human body, including an increased risk of cancer, cataracts, skin burns, and psychological effects. It is important to take precautions to limit exposure to radiation in order to reduce the risk of harm.