Introduction
Sexism is a type of female discrimination. Two kinds of sexism are known: hostile and benevolent. They have different attitudes. Hostile sexism is the negative perspective towards women. On the other hand, benevolent sexism compliments women and portrays them as morally pure and caring. Hostile sexism is regarded as more displeasing than benevolent sexism. Sexism can adversely affect women’s health. Hence, sexism is considered a stressor associated with various health outcomes.
What Are the Predictors of Ambivalent Sexism?
It is not possible to establish the variance between benevolent and hostile sexism across countries. However, evidence shows that hostile sexism is strongest in countries with lower gender equality, health, and education. Sexism is not only detrimental to women's advancement but also to society. The predictors of ambivalent sexism are:
1. Demographic Factors:
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Age: Hostile and benevolent sexism in women is higher in adolescence and young adulthood. On the other hand, men’s benevolent sexism increases with age.
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Ethnicity: Women from racial and ethnic minorities experience racism and sexism.
2. Situational Factors: Higher benevolent sexism characterizes the individual’s circumstances with the traditional gender roles. For example, having more children predicts stronger benevolent sexism. It is because people may validate benevolent sexism to justify the traditional gender roles they have adopted.
3. Ideological Factors: Religion is another form that drives sexism. Some studies report that reductions in religious beliefs coincide with scientific and technological advances that increase fertility and reduce child mortality. Political conservatism explains more variance in ambivalent sexism.
What Are the Effects of Ambivalent Sexism on Women’s Health?
Although women and men both experience sexism, women are a more common target. To date, the majority of research on wellness and sexism has focused mainly on the hostile forms of sexism. It is because the influence of benevolent sexism on health has not been determined. Various effects of sexism on women’s health are:
1. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: Women regularly endure sexist behaviors. Hence, anger, depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem occur. Sexism-based trauma (SBT) occurs when there are sudden, uncontrollable, and negative experiences followed by distortions in self-belief. Research has demonstrated a higher prevalence of full and partial post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among women than men. Furthermore, ambivalent sexism is associated with increased self-reported anxiety and rage in women. The symptoms have a stronger association with hostile sexism than benevolent sexism. In benevolent sexism, there is delayed stress recovery and anxiety.
2. Smoking and Drinking Behavior: Sexism is linked to poor mental and physical health outcomes. A study of 179 female college students in the United States showed that the relationship between sexism, binge drinking, and smoking was due to psychological distress. Hence, there is increased smoking and drinking in females due to ambivalent sexism.
3. Eating Disorders: Both benevolent and hostile sexism are linked with beauty ideals, self-objectification, and body dissatisfaction. As a result, these make women vulnerable to mental ill health. A vicious cycle ensues as a result of depression and anxiety. Hence, eating disorders increase. These include anorexia nervosa or binge eating. Benevolent sexism is linked with both thin and large-body ideals.
4. Cardiovascular Health: Responses to both types of sexism are evident in body changes. It is because sexism may increase the risk of physiological ‘wear and tear.’ It includes cardiovascular disease (CVD). Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of women's mortality worldwide. However, it remains underdiagnosed and undertreated. Studies depict that either women are not being treated aggressively for CVD, or other mechanisms may contribute to the same. Furthermore, cardiovascular warning signs and symptoms can be seen in women experiencing both benevolent and hostile sexism. It is characterized by heightened cardiovascular reactivity to hostile sexism. However, benevolent sexism also leads to decreased cardiovascular recovery. Two major risk factors for CVD individually associated with ambivalent sexism are:
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Obesity: Female gender is at a higher risk of having obesity. Further, sexism is an essential aspect of obesity.
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Hypertension: Sexism is associated with a variety of negative health outcomes. Various studies show elevated blood pressure in midlife women, especially minority groups.
5. Healthcare: Women’s healthcare is compromised as women are viewed as emotional. In addition, a woman’s idealization as a mother leads to a controlling attitude about a pregnant woman’s choice of healthcare. Ambivalent sexism also affects heterosexual relationships. Benevolent sexism influences sexual relationships with a focus on men’s sexual needs and women’s sexual duties.
Only hostile sexism is shown to predict women's tolerance of sexual harassment. It further denies women's emotions. Sexism also influences perceiving women in the work domain. Hostile sexism leads to fewer women being hired as managers. It also predicts negative attitudes toward women managers. These can further lead to depression in women.
What Is the Mechanism of Stress Related to Sexism and Women’s Health?
Sexism can lead to negative psychological responses. Furthermore, it also leads to various physiological responses and adaptations. Sexism stress may result in the dysregulation of various body systems. Different body changes include:
Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis (HPAA):
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Acute Response: Social stressors activate the HPAA. HPAA mediates the stress response in the body. Adaptive response in a short time results in the “fight or flight” response and adrenaline release.
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Chronic Response: Chronic HPAA activation in response to sexism stress can lead to cortisol dysregulation. Cortisol is released during chronic stress. On activation of HPAA, it stimulates a variety of neuroendocrine responses. Stress-induced cortisol increase can have a negative effect on cognitive processes. Moreover, repeated cortisol elevation is linked to physical and mental health problems such as depression, cardiovascular disease, and obesity.
How Are the Effects of Ambivalent Sexism Evaluated?
Despite the lack of consensus to investigate gender differences in treatment paradigms, research has uncovered evidence that medical professionals barely acknowledge or dismiss women's symptoms. Hence, it has inspired research and interventions aimed at reducing the bias displayed by healthcare professionals. Event measurement study designs enable the longitudinal assessment of an individual’s experiences. It has been used previously to assess bodily states in response to racism.
Conclusion
There is a positive association between sexism and PTSD, psychological distress, and the frequency of smoking and drinking behavior among women. Hence, these findings should incite researchers to examine ambivalent sexism in depth as an additional cardiovascular risk factor in women. It is difficult to discriminate between specific emotional and psychological effects of ambivalent sexism. Hence, this will be one of the future research aims.
